Showing posts with label Indian History. Show all posts
Showing posts with label Indian History. Show all posts

Vijayanagara Dynasty

 


Vijayanagara Empire













Vijayanagara Empire

 

Sangama dynasty

 

Harihara I                                1336–1356

Bukka Raya I                           1356–1377

Harihara Raya II                      1377–1404

Virupaksha Raya                      1404–1405

Bukka Raya II                          1405–1406

Deva Raya I                             1406–1422

Ramachandra Raya                  1422

Vira Vijaya Bukka Raya          1422–1424

Deva Raya II                            1424–1446

Mallikarjuna Raya                   1446–1465

Virupaksha Raya II                  1465–1485

Praudha Raya                           1485

 

Saluva dynasty

 

Saluva Narasimha Deva Raya 1485–1491

Thimma Bhupala                     1491

Narasimha Raya II                   1491–1505

 

Tuluva dynasty

 

Tuluva Narasa Nayaka            1491–1503

Vira Narasimha Raya              1503–1509

Krishna Deva Raya                  1509–1529

Achyuta Deva Raya                 1529–1542

Venkata I                                  1542

Sadasiva Raya                          1542–1570

 

Aravidu dynasty

 

Aliya Rama Raya                     1542–1565

Tirumala Deva Raya                1565–1572

Sriranga I                                 1572–1586

Venkata II                                1586–1614

Sriranga II                                1614

Rama Deva Raya                     1617–1632

Venkata III                               1632–1642

Sriranga III                               1642–1646

 

 

Capital                                     Vijayanagara, Penukonda, Chandragiri, Vellore

Common languages               Kannada, Telugu, Sanskrit

Religion                                  Hinduism

Government                           Monarchy

Currency                                 Varaha

 

King

• 1336–1356               Harihara I

• 1642–1646               Sriranga III

 

History         

• Established              1336

• Earliest records        1343

• Disestablished         1646

 

Preceded by

Hoysala Empire

Kakatiya dynasty

Kampili kingdom

Madurai Sultanate

Pandyan dynasty

Musunuri Nayaks

Reddy dynasty

 

Succeeded by

Kingdom of Mysore   

Nayakas of Keladi      

Thanjavur Nayak kingdom    

Madurai Nayak dynasty        

Nayakas of Chitradurga         

Adil Shahi dynasty     

Qutb Shahi dynasty   

Nayaks of Gingee         

 

Today, it is a part of India.


Introduction:

  • The Vijayanagara kings patronized architecture, art and fine arts.
  • It is rare to find such political hegemony that extended for 3 centuries.
  • (Note – hegemony – leadership or dominance, especially by one state or social group over others.)
  • Vijayanagara empire stands as a rare example of such an endeavour.
  • It served as a barrier to Muslim invasions.
  • It is believed that the Vijayanagara Empire was established to protect and promote the Hindu culture and religion.
  • In South Indian history, the history of the Vijayanagara Empire stands as the last glorious episode.

 

Brief Political History:

  • Vijayanagara was one of the kingdoms that declared independence during Muhammad-bin-Tughlaq’s reign.
  • Harihara and Bukka Raya were the founders of the Vijayanagara Empire.
  • With the blessings of Vidyaranya, Vidyanagara, the present Hampi was established on the southern bank of river Tungabhadra in 1336 A.D. which later became famous as Vijayanagara in the history of South India.
  • The Vijayanagara Empire was ruled by 4 dynasties; Sangama, Saluva, Tuluva and Aravidu.

 

Sangama dynasty (1336-1485 A.D.):

  • This is the first dynasty that ruled the Vijayanagara kingdom.
  • Sangama was the father of Harihara and Bukka Raya and hence this dynasty was named after him.
  • It ruled for one and a half century.
  • The empire extended from the river Krishna in the north to River Kaveri in the south; the Arabian Sea in the west to Bay of Bengal in the east.
  • Harihara annexed the Hoysala territories and thus extended the kingdom.
  • Devaraya II, known as Praudha Devaraya was a powerful personality in the Sangam lineage.
  • He had interest in literature and was a great patron of dramas and Vritti-compositions (A style of dramatic composition).
  • Chamarasa was his court poet. He was a Virashaiva poet in the Kannada language.
  • The Telugu poet Srinatha of Kondaveedu defeated the Sanskrit poet Dindima and hence received the felicitation, `Kanakabhisekaram' from Praudha Devaraya.
  • (Note – felicitations – words expressing praise for an achievement or good wishes on a special occasion.)
  • During his reign in Hampi, the Vittalaswamy temple was built.
  • The rule of Sangama dynasty began to deteriorate after him and it came to an end when Saluva Narasimha of Penukonda defeated the last Sangam king, Virupaksha and thus the rule of Saluva lineage began.

 

Saluva Dynasty (1486-1505 A.D.):

  • Saluva Narasimha, the founder of Saluva dynasty was one of the successors of Mangu.
  • He served the Vijayanagara rulers as chieftain and ultimately ascended the throne of Vijayanagara.
  • He faced many revolts with strength and vigour, hence was able to put down all of them and ruled up to 1490 A.D.
  • Soon after him, his minister Tuluva Narasa Nayaka brought Saluva Thimma to the throne.
  • After Thimma, Narasimha Raya II became king but he was a weak ruler.
  • Hence, Tuluva Narasa Nayaka ascended the throne but he died within a short period of time after becoming the king.
  • Tuluva Vira Narasimha Raya became the next king and thus the rule of Tuluva dynasty began.

 

Tuluva Dynasty (1505-1576 A.D.):

  • Tulunadu, part of Mysore, was the original home of Tuluvas and so their dynasty was named after this place.
  • Tuluva Narasa Nayaka was its founder, but the inception of this lineage started with Narasimha Raya, who ruled from 1505 to 1509 A.D.
  • His brother Srikrishna Deva Raya's reign is considered one of the most important and glorious periods, not only in the history of the Vijayanagara kingdom, but also during the reign of Tuluva dynasty.
  • He was a versatile genius and made this mark as a great warrior too.
  • He was an able administrator, an excellent politician, liberal patron of art and was fond of Sanskrit and other languages such as Telugu, Kannada, etc.
  • Saluva Timmarusu was his prime minister.
  • He waged war against Bahmani kingdom and annexed Raichur and Mudgal areas, as the Bahmani Sultanate was already disintegrated into five independent kingdoms namely Bidar, Bijapur, Ahmadnagar, Golkonda and Berar.
  • In 1510 A.D., he invaded Bidar, went up to Gulbarga, freed Sultan Mahmud Shah and made him ascend the throne of Bidar.
  • Thus, he assumed the title "Yavanaraja Sthapanacharya".
  • In 1523 A.D., he declared war on Bijapur, annexed Bijapur and Gulbarga, went up to Sagar and looted all the regions.
  • Finally, the Bahmani Sultanate had to recognize his hegemony.
  • However, the last days of his life were not happy due to the turn of events like the death of his young son, Tirumala Raya.
  • After that he nominated his half-brother Achuyta as his successor and died by the end of 1529 A.D.

 

Aravidu Dynasty:

  • Aravidu dynasty was founded by Tirumala Deva Raya, the younger brother of Aliya Rama Raya.
  • He ruled his empire from Penugonda.
  • In this dynasty, Venkatapati Raya II was a notable person.
  • The Vijayanagara empire collapsed in 1614, and the final remains ended in 1646, from continued wars with the Bijapur sultanate and others.

 

Administration System:

  • Sri Krishna Deva Raya was also a good administrator.
  • He reorganized the administrative system with the help of his minister Saluva Timmarusu, popularly known as Appaji.
  • Agriculture and trade were encouraged.
  • Irrigation tanks were constructed and canals were dug to provide water for agricultural operations.
  • A big tank was constructed at Nagalapuram.
  • The accounts of Nuniz and Domingo Paes testify to the imperial greatness of the city and the wealth and luxury of the people.
  • During his time, the annual festival 'Vasanthotsavam' was celebrated in a big way.
  • He was not only a great warrior and administrator, but also a patron of literature and hence had the title "Sahitya Sangita Samarangana Sarvabhouma".
  • His court was known as 'Bhuvanavijayam' and consisted of 8 great poets known as 'Ashtadiggajas'.
  • Their contributions in Sanskrit, Telugu, Tamil and Kannada were marvellous.
  • Krishna Deva Raya was the follower of Vaishnavism and Vyasatirtha, the great Dvaita saint from Mysore belonging to the Madhwa order, was his Rajaguru.
  • This has influenced Krishna Deva Raya to build Krishna temple and Hazara Rama temple.
  • His also added gopuras and mandapas to the temples at Kanchi, Simhachalam, Tirupati, Kalahasti and Ahobilam.
  • The Portuguese traveller Domingo Paes visited the Vijayanagara capital in 1520-22 A.D.
  • Paes reported advanced irrigation technology that allowed the kingdom to produce high yields of crops at very reasonable prices, and a wide variety of cultures. He described a busy market of precious stones. The city was prospering and its size was comparable to Rome, with abundant vegetation, aqueducts and artificial lakes.

 

Economic Conditions:

  • The foreign visitors Domingo Paes, Abdul Razzaq and Nuniz described the glory and economic excellence of the Vijayanagara empire.
  • The periodic invasions of Bahmani Sultans against Vijayanagara were because of its wealth, prosperity and splendour.
  • The Portuguese pilgrim stated that Sri Krishna Deva Raya used to preserve one lakh coins from his annual income after spending for his army and other royal expenses.
  • The economic condition of the empire was sound, but the common people's economic situation was disappointing.
  • In order to improve the economic conditions of the kingdom through agricultural development, forest areas were cleared and several thousands of waste lands were brought under cultivation.
  • Bukka Raya II built a dam across the river Tungabhadra, which facilitated the growth of flower and fruit gardens around the capital city and hence kingdom's income increased tremendously.
  • Projects for the construction of tanks, canals and wells were taken up on a large scale.
  • According to Abdul Razzaq, much of the empire was fertile and well cultivated.
  • Most of the growers were tenant farmers and were given the right of part ownership of the land over time.
  • Tax policies encouraging essential produce made distinctions between the different ways in which the land was being put to use to determine how the tax was levied.
  • Both men and women worked in the agricultural fields and the landless agricultural labourers were employed on remuneration basis but some others led their life as agricultural slaves.
  • The entire Vijayanagara kingdom was provided with enormous irrigational facilities.
  • These developmental activities, throughout the country, increased the crop production along with the establishment of fruit gardens of guava, lemon, mango, sugarcane and coconut, which gave the farmers an opportunity to earn good profits.
  • Food grains like jowar, paddy, ragi, greengram, blackgram, bengalgram and oil seeds like Castor and linseed were produced on a large scale.
  • Production of sugar, oils, indigo and coconut was also taken up on a large scale.
  • According to some sources, Adoni, Tadipatri, Gooty and Vinukonda were centres for cotton textile and at Alvakonda village alone there were 411 looms.
  • Dyeing industry was connected to the textile industry.
  • During the reign of the Vijayanagara empire, 'Kalamkari' clothes had a good demand from foreign countries.
  • Abdul Razak mentioned the existence of 300 sea ports in the Vijayanagara empire and Calicut was an important sea port in those days.
  • Tax on foreign trade was also one of the major sources of income during this period in time.
  • The imports were mainly meant to provide the important essentials for battlefields like horses, guns and cannons.
  • The artisans who made handicrafts and small-scale industries established guilds and got their businesses regularized.
  • The economic strength and power of such commercial guilds can be estimated through the donations and gifts given to temples by them.

 

Social Conditions:

 

Religious conditions:

  • Vijayanagara empire was established to protect the Hindu religion and culture.
  • Advaita, Visistadvaita Siddhanthas, Saiva-Vaishnava religions had wide propagation in the Vijayanagara period.
  • Saivism and Vaishnavism were the two predominant religions of the empire, but the followers of Jainism also existed during the period.
  • They showed tolerance towards other religions.
  • Though the Vijayanagara rulers exhibited tolerance towards all religions that were prevalent during their reign, they showed more affection towards Kalamukha sect as they had more faith in Vedic rituals.
  • In the Kannada region of the Vijayanagara empire, Veera Saivism became popular among the people.
  • Animal sacrifices were prevalent.
  • The followers of Ramanujacharya were divided into Vadakalai and Thenkalai classes.
  • Vallabhacharya was a contemporary of Krishna Deva Raya.
  • Haridasa propagated the Madhvaita principles in the Kannada regions.
  • Saluva and Tuluva dynasties patronized Vaishnavism.
  • The people of Vijayanagara empire actively took part in the religious and cultural way of life.
  • Simhachalam temple located in the northern part and Tirupati and Ahobilam temples located in the southern part of Praudha Raya’s empire were revered.
  • The grand celebration of the 9 days festival known as `Maharnavami’ was observed by the Vijayanagara rulers.
  • Nicolo Conti described the `Vasanthostava' in his writings.
  • Lord Venkateshwara temple in Tirupati was one of the famous temples of South India during those days.
  • The importance of this temple was due to the liberal grants issued by the kings of the empire and hence it became a famous pilgrim centre.
  • Venkatapathi Raya II issued permission for the construction of churches at Chandragiri and Vellore.
  • The Royalty went to pilgrimages on horses and palanquins, whereas the common people went on foot.
  • Because of the religious tolerance observed by the Vijayanagara rulers, a harmonious relationship existed between the Muslims and the Hindus.

 

Education and Literature:

  • Kanchi, Madurai and Vijayanagara were the important centres of learning.
  • Agraharas and monasteries were the famous centres of teaching.
  • (Note - An Agraharam or Agrahara was a grant of land and royal income from it, typically by a king or a noble family in India, for religious purposes, particularly to Brahmins to maintain temples in that land or a pilgrimage site and to sustain their families.)
  • (Note - A monastery is a building or complex of buildings comprising the domestic quarters and workplaces of monastics, monks or nuns, whether living in communities or alone.)
  • In these educational centres, brahmins used to study vedas, puranas, sastras, grammar and poetic dramas.
  • In order to get employment in the royal court, it was necessary to be well versed in astrology, mathematics, scriptures and languages along with polity.
  • (Note – polity – a form or process of civil government or constitution.)
  • Pedda Tirumalayya had Tallapaka Annammayya’s songs inscribed on copper plates and preserved in a sealed chamber known as the Sankirtana Bhandaram in Tirumala.
  • An immense portion of literary creations were produced during the Vijayanagara period, especially in Sanskrit, Kannada, Telugu and Tamil languages, as these rulers patronized several poets.
  • King Praudha Deva Raya II and King Sri Krishna Deva Raya, themselves were poets.
  • Praudha Deva Raya II authored well-known works in the Kannada language (Sobagina Sone and Amaruka) and in the Sanskrit language (Mahanataka Sudhanidhi).
  • Sri Krishna Deva Raya being a poet had the title `Sahitya Samarangana Sarvabhauma’.
  • During this period, Sri Vedanta Desikan wrote Yaadhavaabhyudhayam and Hamsa Sandhesam and Vidyaranya wrote Anubhutiprakasa and Aparokshanubhuti Dipika, etc. in Sanskrit, which are theological volumes.
  • Among the Sanskrit poetic works, Vathrurya Deepika and Saivamnaya Saram are some important works written by Chaunda Madhava of Kalamukha sect.
  • Other important works are Kalamadhaviyam and Parasara Smithivakya written by Madhava Charya.
  • The Madhura Vijayam, written by Kamparaya's wife, Gangadevi, discussed the victory of her husband over the Madhura Kingdom.
  • Sri Krishna Deva Raya’s wife Annapurna wrote `Mookapanchasathi’ in which she discussed the role and impact of women, from the perspective of a woman living in that period.
  • The famous Sanskrit poets of those days were Saluva Timmarusu, Thathachariar and Appayya Dikshita.
  • Works written by Vedantha Desika on Vaishna religion, Sreekara panditha on Saiva Siddantha and Jayathirtha on Dvaitha Siddantha, were all religious works from that period.
  • Vidyaranya’s Parasara-Madhaviya and Jaimini Nyaya Mala were some of the important and famous works.
  • In the court of Praudha Deva Raya II, Srinatha received kanakabhishekam from the king.
  • Sri Krishna Deva Raya patronized the Telugu language and said `Desabhashalandu Telugu Lessa'.
  • Scholars believe that Sri Krishna Deva Raya graciously respected the Ashtadiggajas, the 8 Telugu poets in his court known as 'Bhuvana Vijayam'.
  • Amuktha Malyada was a great poetic volume written by Sri Krishna Deva Raya.
  • Nandi Timmana's 'Parijatapaharanamu' and Ramarajabhushanudu's ‘Vasucharitra’ were some of the celebrated treasures of that period.
  • Pingali Suranna wrote two works, 'Kalapurnodayamu' and ‘Prabhavati Pradyumnamu' and also a Dwarthi Kavyam known as ‘Raghava Pandaveeyam', whereas Tenali Ramakrishna wrote `Panduranga Mahatyam'.
  • Atukuri Molla was a Telugu poetess who authored the Telugu-language Ramayana.
  • As she was of the Kummara caste, she was popularly known as Kummara Molla.
  • The pillars of Karnataka music such as Annamacharya and Kshetrayya were the Telugu Vaggeyakaras belonging to this period.
  • (Note – 'Vaggeyakara' is a term used in Karnatic music It refers to a person who does the job of a 'lyricist' as well as a 'composer'.)
  • Kannada literature mostly belonged to Jain and Veerasaiva religions.
  • The poet, Bhima was a laureate in Telugu and Kannada languages.
  • (Note – laureate – a person who is honoured with an award for outstanding creative or intellectual achievement.)

 

Music and Painting:

  • Along with literature and music, the art of painting was also encouraged during the Vijayanagara period.
  • Krishna Deva Raya learned to play the flute from a teacher called Krishna.
  • `Swaramelakalanidhi’ written by Ramamatya was considered as a sacred volume of Karnataka Music.
  • Both dance and music had importance in those days, hence `Yakshagana' became more popular among people.
  • Along with `Sangitasara' of Vidyaranya, a composition of music, Praudha Raya's `Mahanataka Sudhanidhi' was also a prominent work.
  • Fine arts received a tremendous response from the people when played during the annual festival of `Vasanthostava', a popular fair held in the Viiayanagara city.
  • During the reign of Venkatapathi Raya II, the Christian painters were patronized.
  • The walls of the dance halls were decorated with paintings of female dancers, scenes from the epics, puranas and social events.
  • Performing arts like Telugu Kuchipudi, Tamil Bhagavata Mela and the classical Hindu dance tradition of Yakshagana belonged to this period.

 

Art and Architecture:

 

Glory of Vijayanagara:

  • The Vijayanagara rule forms a glorious period in the history of South India.
  • It provided Hindu religion and culture, shelter and opportunity to grow in the South against the Muslim onslaught.
  • Remarkable progress was made in the administration, socio-economic and cultural fields.

 

Conclusion:

  • In South Indian history, the history of the Vijayanagara Empire stands as the last glorious episode.
  • The Vijayanagara rulers patronized art, architecture and fine arts.
  • The Vijayanagara empire was ruled by 4 dynasties; Sangama, Saluva, Tuluva and Aravidu.
  • Deva Raya II, known as Praudha Deva Raya was a powerful personality in the Sangam lineage.
  • Sri Krishna Deva Raya's reign is considered one of the most important and glorious periods not only in the history of the Vijayanagara kingdom, but also the Tuluva dynasty.
  • Caste feeling increased even though the Vijayanagara society possessed Ashtadasha castes.
  • Women possessed high status in the society and took part in several social activities as per foreign writings.
  • The economic condition of the empire was sound, but the common people’s economic situation was disappointing.
  • People's main occupation was agriculture.
  • The economic strength and power of commercial guilds of this time can be estimated through the donations and gifts given to temples by them.
  • The Vijayanagara empire was established to protect the Hindu religion and culture.
  • The Vijayanagara rulers did not forget the welfare of their subjects at the cost of religion.
  • Religious tolerance observed by the Vijayanagara rulers led to a harmonious relationship between Hindus and Muslims.
  • Kanchi, Vijayanagara and Madurai were the important educational centres.
  • In these educational centres, brahmins used to study Vedas, sastras, puranas, epics, poetic-dramas and grammar.
  • Vijayanagara period was known as a golden age of Telugu literature.
  • It can be considered a renaissance period for several South Indian languages.
  • Along with literature and music, the art of painting was also developed during the Vijayanagara period.
  • The rulers of the Vijayanagara Empire built temples not only in their capital city, but also at Ahobilam, Tirupati, Kalahasti, Kanchipuram and Lepakshi.
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#Vijayanagara Empire, #Vijayanagara art and architecture, #History, #Ancient Indian History, #Indian History, #Vijayanagara Dynasty, #Ancient India,#India, #Vijayanagara music,


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Chola Dynasty

   

Chola Empire

 






Chola dynasty             300s BCE–1279 CE

Official languages      Tamil

Religion                         Hinduism

Government                Monarchy

Capital

•          Early Cholas: Poompuhar, Urayur, Tiruvarur

•          Medieval Cholas: Pazhaiyaarai, Thanjavur

•          Gangaikonda Cholapuram

 

King and Emperor

• 848–871       Vijayalaya Chola (first)

• 1246–1279   Rajendra Chola III (last)

 

Succeeded by

Pandyan dynasty

Jaffna Kingdom

 

List of Chola kings and emperors

 

Early Cholas

•          Ellalan

•          Kulakkottan

•          Ilamchetchenni

•          Karikala

•          Nedunkilli

•          Nalankilli

•          Killivalavan

•          Kopperuncholan

•          Kochchenganan

•          Perunarkilli

 

Interregnum (c. 200 – c. 848)

(Note – Interregnum – a period when normal government is suspended, especially between successive reigns or regimes.)

 

Medieval Cholas

Vijayalaya                          848–871

Aditya I                              871–907

Parantaka I                        907–955

Rajaditya Chola                935–949

Gandaraditya                    949–962

Arinjaya                             955–966

Parantaka II (Sundara)  962–980

Aditya II (Karikala)        966–971

Uttama                              971–987

Rajaraja I                          985–1014

Rajendra I                       1012–1044

Rajadhiraja                     1018–1054

Rajendra II                     1051–1063

Rajamahendra                1060–1063

Virarajendra                   1063–1070

Athirajendra                   1067–1070

 

Later Cholas

Kulothunga I                1070–1120

Vikrama                        1118–1135

Kulothunga II              1133–1150

Rajaraja II                    1146–1173

Rajadhiraja II               1166–1178

Kulothunga III             1178–1218

Rajaraja III                   1216–1256

Rajendra III                 1246–1279


Introduction:

  • The Cholas were an ancient dynasty and they were mentioned in the Mahabharata.
  • The Chola kingdom was on the Coromandel coast.
  • The most important source to learn about them was the Sangam Literature.

 

Early History of the Cholas:

  • The greatest among the Cholas of the Sangam age was Karikala, who was "the man with the charred leg".
  • He extended the chola territory and built a new capital city called Kaveripattinam.
  • But his successors could not defend the kingdom from the expansion of the Cheras and the Pandyas.
  • Cholas were reduced to an insignificant position.
  • Vijayalaya was the founder of the Imperial Chola dynasty which was the beginning of one of the most splendid empires in Indian history.
  • They started ruling from the middle of the 8th century A.D.

 

Political History of Cholas:

  • Vijayalaya and Aditya were the first two kings of the imperial Chola Line.
  • Tanjore was their capital.
  • Parantaka I, the son of Aditya ruled from 907 — 953 A.D.
  • He captured Madurai from the Pandyas.
  • To commemorate this event, he took the title of "Maduraikonda".
  • During the last days of his rule, he was defeated by the Rashtrakuta king, Krishna III.
  • With the accession of Raja Raja in 985 A.D normalcy was restored in the Chola kingdom.

 

Raja Raja - I (985 - 1014 A.D.):

  • Raja Raja I was a great king of the Chola kingdom.
  • He was the son of Parantaka II and Vanavanmahadevi.
  • His first great achievement was the destruction of the Chera navy at Kandalur Salai.
  • In the south, he subdued the Pandyas.
  • The northern portion of Ceylon was annexed to the Chola territory.
  • He also conquered a few territories from the Eastern Chalukyas, the Ganges and the Chalukyas of Kalyani.
  • Thus, Raja Raja - I extended his empire up to the Tungabhadra River.
  • He was also said to have brought under his way, the Laccadives and the Maldives.
  • He was also a great administrator.

 

Rajendra - I (1014 - 1044 A.D.):

  • Rajendra - I was the son and successor of Raja Raja.
  • He conquered the kingdoms of the Pandyas and the Cheras.
  • Ceylon was conquered in 1029 A.D.
  • He also attacked and plundered the kingdom of the Chalukya King, Someshvara I.
  • He was the first Indian ruler, who established the supremacy of Indian Navy in the Arabian sea.
  • In the North, he advanced as far as the river Ganges.
  • On this occasion, he was given the title of "Gangaikonda".
  • His most important achievement was the expedition to Kadaram and Srivijaya in 1025 A.D.
  • He built a new capital called Gangaikonda Cholapuram.
  • Some of the famous titles of Rajendra-I were Mudikonda Chola (the crowned Chola), Gangaikonda (conqueror of the Ganges), Kadaramkonda (conqueror of Kadaram) and Pandita Chola (scholarly Chola).

 

Rajadhiraja I (1044 - 1052 A.D.):

  • Rajadhiraja-I was the son of Rajendra-I.
  • He was always at war with the neighbouring princes.
  • He was killed by a Chalukya ruler in the battle of Koppam in 1052 A.D.
  • Upon his death, his brother Rajendra II assumed power.

 

Successors of Rajendra — II:

  • Rajendra II was followed by Vira Rajendra I and Athirajendra.
  • With the death of Athirajendra, the Vijayalaya line of Cholas ended.
  • Then, the crown passed to an Eastern Chalukyan prince, Rajendra.
  • He ruled from 1070-1120 A.D.
  • He was the greatest grandson of Raja Raja – I, both from the paternal and maternal side.
  • With his accession, Vengi become a part of the Chola Empire.
  • Kulothunga III was the last of the Chola kings of any importance.
  • After his death, the decline set in.
  • His successors were weak and the Chola dominions were slowly absorbed by Pandyas, the Kakatiyas, Hoysalas and the Yadavas.

 

Administration of cholas:

  • The Chola administration was well organized and thoroughly efficient.
  • The King was the head of the state.
  • All powers were concentrated in his hands.
  • There was no definite council of ministers connected with the central government.
  • But some of the higher-level officers of the state are described as “Udankuttam".
  • The cholas had organized an efficient bureaucracy.
  • The central government took care of the maintenance of peace and order in the country, external defence and increasing the general prosperity of the people.
  • All details of administration were left in the hands of the local bodies.
  • The unit of administration was the self-governing village.
  • A number of villages constituted Kurram.
  • A number of Kurrams made up a Valanadu.
  • A number of Valanadus made up a province.
  • Each province was headed by a viceroy who received orders from the king.
  • The king was assisted by a number of ministers and others.

 

Army and Navy:

  • The king was the head of the army and the navy.
  • The army was divided into a number of regiments and spread over the country in the form of local garrisons.
  • These were called Kadagams.
  • The Cholas maintained a big standing army.
  • It consisted of elephantry, cavalry and infantry.
  • The soldiers were well trained and disciplined.
  • The total army was about 1,50,000 corps.
  • The king had his own guard.
  • The kings and the princes led the army.
  • The Cholas realized the need for a strong navy and followed a steady naval policy.
  • This is evident from the many naval victories of the Chola kings.

 

Revenue:

  • The chief sources of revenue were lands under cultivation.
  • Lands were carefully surveyed and revenue was collected by the village assemblies.
  • Besides land revenue, taxes on trade, various professions, mines, forests, salt and irrigation were other sources of income for the state.
  • The chief items of public expenditure were the expenses of the king and the court, navy and army, roads, irrigation, administrative staff and other public works.

 

Justice:

  • Justice was mostly a matter of local concern.
  • At the local level, the village assemblies were in charge of justice.
  • Punishments largely depended upon the merits of a case.
  • Death penalty was not given in all cases of murder.

 

Local Self-Government:

  • The most remarkable feature of the Chola administration was the organization of the local government.
  • It was organized on democratic lines.
  • Villages and towns had primary assemblies and larger towns had representative assemblies.
  • There were two types of these assemblies. They were called "Sabha" and "Ur". Sabha was exclusive to the Brahmadeya villages, while Ur was of the general type.
  • The assembly of Brahmin landowners was called the Sabha.
  • The assembly of non-Brahmin landowners was called the Ur.
  • The village assembles enjoyed an almost sovereign authority in all matters of rural administration.
  • They assessed the land revenue, collected the revenue and maintained a record of the revenue collection.
  • These records were open for audit by the officers of the king.
  • They were the absolute proprietors of village communal lands and also controlled the private lands within their jurisdiction.
  • The village assembly functioned through its committees called "Variams".
  • The members of these committees were elected by the assemblies.
  • Some of the committees were the garden committee, the tank Committee, committee of justice and the committee which looked after the ascetics, foreigners and orphans.
  • The committee members held office for one year.
  • They were not remunerated for their services.
  • If a member was found guilty of any offence, he was removed forthwith.

 

Election Procedure:

  • The members of the executive committee were elected by the people.
  • Every town or village, was divided into several wards known as "Kudumbam".
  • Assembly consisted of the representatives of Kudumbam.
  • Certain qualifications were prescribed for the members of the committee.
  • The qualifications were:

1. He must be able bodied within the age of 35 to 70 years.

2. He must own property and must not have committed any sins like bribery, adultery, theft and other criminal offences.

3. He must be well versed in Vedas and must be a resident of the village.

  • The names of the persons nominated for selection were written on strips of palm leaves called "Kudavolai".
  • On the day of election, the villagers met at a public place and the members were elected through lottery.
  • These members of the Executive Committee were called "Variya Perumakkal".
  • The village assemblies played an important role in the administration of the Cholas.
  • The Cholas were pioneers in introducing the system of local government at the village level.
  • This helped to give training to all citizens in administration.
  • The organization of these "little Republics", the tiny states at the base, encouraged the communal life of people.
  • It developed a sense of civic duty, fostered a sense of liberty and guaranteed a high standard of administrative efficiency.

 

Chola's Architecture:

  • Chola history begins at about 901 A.D. lasting for 250 years.
  • They developed and perfected the Dravidian style of architecture.
  • The Cholas were also great builders.
  • They undertook work on a very large scale.
  • Their most laudable undertakings were their vast irrigation schemes and works.
  • Rajendra-1, constructed a huge artificial lake, 26 kms in length, near their new capital Gangaikonda Cholapuram.
  • Their dams were composed of huge dressed stones, thrown across the Kaveri and other rivers.

(Note – Dressed Stone – A stone that has been worked to a desired shape; the faces to be exposed are smooth, usually ready for installation.)

  • Cholas rulers also carefully planned and laid out vast cities, with temples in their centre.
  • The Cholas temple architecture is famous for the purity of its artistic traditions.
  • It achieved maturity in the two magnificent temples at Tanjore and Gangaikonda Cholapuram.
  • They were built in the 1st quarter of the 11th century.
  • The great Siva temple at Tanjore, known as Brihadisvara temple or Rajarajeswara temple was built by Raja Raja – I, the Great.
  • It is the largest, highest and the most ambitious production of temple architecture from that period.
  • Its tower has 14 successive stories rising to a height of about 60 meters.
  • It is crowned by a massive dome (Sikhara) at the top.
  • The whole temple building is carved with sculptures and decorative mouldings.
  • The Tanjore temple is the touch stone of Indian architecture as a whole.
  • Another artistic achievement of the Cholas is the Indian plastic art known as the Chola Bronze.

(Note - Plastic art – the art of producing works or effects that are three-dimensional, such as sculptures or ceramics)

  • The Nataraja figure, the images of saints and Hindu Gods and Goddesses are masterpieces of the Chola art.

 

Conclusion:

  • The Cholas were an ancient dynasty and they were mentioned in the Mahabharata.
  • The Cholas were well known in history as efficient and enlightened administrators.
  • The Cholas Policy was humane, benevolent and democratic.
  • A nice balance was struck between the centralized control and local initiative.
  • A clear distinction was maintained between these two aspects of administration.
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#Chola art and architecture, #Chola Dynasty, #Chola Politics, #Ancient Indian History,#Ancient India,
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